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The purpose of this research is to describe the challenges and factors causing difficulties of deaf students in mastering writing skills at inclusive universities in Indonesia. This research is focused in Central Java province because of the more universities are considered as inclusive universities. This research was conducted in September-December 2022. The subjects in this research were selected using the purposive sampling method. Based on these limits, 35 Deaf students from six inclusive universities were obtained as respondents. The data collection techniques used questionnaires, observations, interviews, and concentrated discussions. Furthermore, the data analysis steps undertaken consisted of: (a) data analysis, (b) data revision, and (c) data verification. The results of this research concluded that the challenges experienced by students were broadly related to: (a) difficulty in mastering vocabulary, (b) understanding punctuation, and (c) difficulty if mastering complex sentences. As for more specifically related to academic text writing skills, the obstacles experienced by students including: (a) composing effective sentences, (b) developing paragraphs, (c) paraphrasing techniques, (d) writing academic texts in accordance with linguistic rules, and (e) writing bibliography. Furthermore, factors causing the occurrence of the obstacles in the mastery of academic text writing skills including: (a) unaccessible learning resources, (b) less effectively interwoven communication during lectures, and (c) different sentence structure in Sign Language with Indonesian sentence structure.

In recent years, despite the extensive research on peer feedback, there remains limited understanding of how students engage in peer feedback activities within online English courses and what they expect from these activities. This study, utilizing a sequential explanatory mixed methods design with a phenomenological approach, introduced online peer feedback (OPF) activities into a 12-week online English writing course involving 30 second-year students (16.7% male, 83.3% female) facilitated through a Facebook group. Data collection encompassed survey questionnaires, written reflections, and task scores. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis. Three key findings emerged: (1) EFL students displayed positive engagement in OPF activities, (2) Student engagement did not significantly correlate with their writing outcomes, and (3) Students provided valuable recommendations for enhancing the quality and quantity of feedback, incorporating teacher feedback and guidance, and improving the overall process and experience. These findings have significant implications for pedagogical practice, emphasizing the importance of integrating OPF activities into the academic curriculum, with a specific emphasis on guiding students to deliver descriptive and constructive feedback, providing scaffolding to enhance their comprehension and writing skills, and addressing concerns related to language proficiency and grammar. Furthermore, the novelty of this research lies in its exploration of factors influencing student involvement and achievements in OPF endeavors, the impact of feedback quality and quantity, and the benefits of online accessibility and temporal flexibility, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of this pedagogical approach.

Background: Although the reading of science texts has been reported for high school learners, there is not much research on how younger learners engage with expository texts and how they develop academic language skills. In the instance of this study, the topic came from the curriculum content about animal reproduction. Aim: The study from which this article emanated aimed to explore how a sample of learners engaged with a short text, which required cohesive reading and some background knowledge and vocabulary. Setting: This study was conducted in a suburban school where the learners use English as a second language. Methods: A sample (n = 25) was randomly selected from five Grade 4 classes. Their reading comprehension of a custom-designed test was assessed, along with their writing competence in their responses to content questions as well as their drawings. The data were analysed in a typical content analysis modality. Results: This study showed that the learners do not apply inferencing skills and do not read cohesively across sentences and paragraphs and that their vocabulary and prior knowledge of animal reproduction is limited. Conclusion: The urgent need for the development of academic language skills in the early grades is foregrounded in this article, arguing that it can be infused in subjects across the curriculum of the early grades. Contribution: The task can be used by teachers and by researchers who may wish to replicate the study.

Purpose: This study aims to develop a teaching model of the Malay language for non-native and foreign speakers in schools. Implementing this model can assist educators in teaching the Malay language to students who do not use it as their first language in everyday use. Methodology: This study used a qualitative approach to develop teaching models for non-native and foreign Malay speakers. Interviews were conducted with 27 teachers and 23 stakeholders who are experts in teaching the Malay language, especially in teaching non-native speakers. A prototype model was developed thematically as a result of interviews using ATLAS.ti 22. Further, the prototype model was used by ten teachers from primary, secondary, and international schools in their teaching. Findings: This study has succeeded in developing a model for teaching the Malay language to non-native speakers and foreigners that includes five elements: teaching strategies, individual differences, input, social, and motivation. This model strongly emphasises instruction involving interaction, communication, and bilateral relations as a medium for students' language acquisition and meaningful input. Verbal interaction between teachers and students can stimulate and improve students' language skills in learning Malay. Significance: This model can help teachers teach the Malay language to non-native speakers and foreigners with a greater focus on achieving learning objectives. This model is expected to expand the usage, cultivate interest, and facilitate teaching the Malay language in educational institutions.

This paper presents findings from a quasi-experimental study that examined the effect of corrective feedback (CF) on L2 pragmatics, specifically comparing Face-to-Face (FF) and Technology-Mediated (TM) modes. The study involved a total of forty-four ESL students from three parallel intact classes. The primary focus of this paper is to report the results obtained from data collected through production tasks employing Role-play scenarios. To analyze the data, a mixed-model Analysis of Variance was conducted, examining the main and interaction effects of CF, delivery mode (FF and TM), speech act type (request and refusal), and time (pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test). The results demonstrated that CF had a substantial positive effect on L2 pragmatic production, resulting in significant overall improvement. Furthermore, the results showed that both FF and TM modes of CF were similarly effective for enhancing pragmatic production. Additionally, the study demonstrated that the effects of CF on pragmatic production were durable and long-lasting. Altogether, these findings support the utilization of corrective feedback in technology-mediated language instruction within L2 classrooms.

This practice report describes a 12-week stand-alone course designed to address the challenges university students face in foreign language classes. Adopting principles of transformative language learning, course content, activities and resources were designed and implemented to dispel myths and preconceptions regarding language instruction, promote self-directed, independent learning, and raise awareness of the cognitive and socio-emotional processes involved in language learning. Students' feedback indicate that the course had a significant impact on their perceptions of adult language learning, their capacity to reflect on their use of strategies, and the importance of developing a plan to continue applying these new understandings in their academic pursuits. The course fostered a shift in students' perspective, from viewing themselves as passive recipients of 'language injections', to becoming self-directed, motivated, and independent learners.

This study aimed to determine and describe the influence of psycholinguistics and metacognition on the ability of physics education students to use verbal language in the learning process. Quantitative research is used to measure the level of influence between variables, and then the case study is used to determine the sample. Based on the data, it could be concluded that the ability of psycholinguistics had a positive correlation with language skills, with a correlation of 0.924 and a significance value (2-tailed) of 0.000 <0.05. Thus, it could be understood that there was a positive correlation between psycholinguistics toward language skills with a very strong correlation category. The correlation between metacognition and language skills was 0.874 with a significance value (2-tailed) of 0.000 < 0.05. Therefore, this article argues that the ability of psycholinguistics and metacognition, so the language skills of physics students in carrying out physics learning would be better. This meant that the two variables affected the verbal language skills in learning physics together and not separately. Because language skills are related to metacognitive abilities, including intellectual abilities, teachers need to consider the use of verbal language in the classroom for the cognitive development of students. To achieve this, a psycholinguistic skill development program was needed for physics education students and other prospective teacher students; they could use verbal language in both the declarative, imperative, and interrogative aspects appropriately and accurately.

There is a substantial body of studies investigating teachers' beliefs about pronunciation. However, this line of research has rarely examined teachers' beliefs as a complex system. To fill this gap, the present study aims to shed light on the genealogy of teachers' beliefs about pronunciation instruction from the perspective of complexity theory. To this end, two EFL teachers who taught English at a private institute were asked to participate in this study. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and narratives. The findings indicated that the teachers recognized the importance of pronunciation instruction for improving students' listening skills and knowledge of vocabulary and manifested aspiration for native-like pronunciation. However, their lack of self-confidence and insufficient pronunciation pedagogical knowledge base were reported to be major challenges of pronunciation instruction, which they attributed to teacher training courses among other factors. In addition, teachers' beliefs about pronunciation, learners, learning pronunciation, teaching pronunciation, teachers, and curriculum were shown to co-exist and interact in a nonlinear manner, suggesting the complex, dynamic, co-adapted, and contextual-driven nature of teachers' belief systems. In light of these findings, teacher education programs are advised to help teachers reappraise their preference for native speakerism and give pronunciation more prominence by introducing a wide range of strategies for teaching it.

Vocational Education and Training (VET) is undergoing an international and national improvement process in order to achieve internationalization, among others. To this end, it is necessary to optimize the EFL level of VET students. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is used to analyze the direct and indirect effects of English language anxiety, willingness to communicate in English, and self-efficacy in English on the academic performance in EFL among VET students. The sample consisted of 100 Spanish VET students (75% female-25% male) aged between 18 and 40 years old. Questionnaires on English language anxiety (FLCAS), willingness to communicate in English (WTC), and self-efficacy in English skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) were administered. In addition, academic grade was used to measure the performance in English. The proposed model received a satisfactory fit. The results show that English language anxiety significantly influences academic performance and has a medium effect on willingness to communicate in English. Practical implications for organizing English classes to improve English proficiency in VET are discussed.

This study examines the factors affecting the intention to use and actual use of YouTube in improving English-speaking skills in Indonesia. To meet the aims, we extended the theory of technology acceptance model (TAM); two external factors, subjective norms, and perceived enjoyment, to support the TAM variables (perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, intention to use, and actual use). Data were collected through a survey with 526 measurable responses from Indonesian preservice English teachers in three Indonesian universities. The data were analyzed through partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), measurement, and structural model. The findings informed that all hypothesized relationships were accepted and confirmed. The strongest relationship emerged between intention to use and actual use. Meanwhile, the weakest correlation was between subjective norms and perceived ease of use. The study facilitates recommendations for future researchers, language educators, and all related parties.

In many fields, AI chatbots continue to be popular with new tools and attract the attention of universities, K12 schools, educational organizations, and researchers. The aim of this research is to review the research on AI chatbots by restricting it to the category of education and to examine this research from a methodological point of view. Therefore, we performed a systematic literature review with a sample of 37 SSCI articles published in the educational context. Within the scope of the selected studies, the advantages and disadvantages of AI chatbots in education for students and educators, as well as the types of chatbots used, year, keywords, and method were analyzed. According to the research results, increased motivation to learn and language skill development are advantages for students, while cost-effectiveness and reduced workload are advantages for educators. Limited interaction, misleading answers for learners, originality, and plagiarism are the most common disadvantages for educators. The study also includes research results and recommendations related to the methodological review.

Teaching English speaking skills in schools can be a challenge, but it is rewarding. English is commonly the most spoken language in the world, and having a good command of the language can open a world of opportunities in the future. English speaking skills also facilitate purposeful communication with people from various linguistic backgrounds. Drama techniques offer an alternative method for instructing speaking skills, allowing participants to step into the characters' shoes. These roles also give them several chances to communicate ideas, feelings, opinions, etc. In this study, two drama techniques have been implemented in accordance with the presented units in the EFL Palestinian curriculum of grade six. The study continued for nine weeks. This study explored the primary students' opinions about drama techniques that have been used in instructing EFL speaking lessons. The data is collected with semi-structured interviews after the intervention period has been completed. Thematic analysis has been used to analyse the gathered data. To conclude, participants have experienced different positive feelings. They also prefer the frequent use of drama techniques. Communication and social skills have been improved because of drama implementation. Finally, they admit that drama techniques offer clear instructions leading to positive learning development.

Since the beginning of the civil war in Syria, Türkiye has been receiving millions of Syrian refugees. Based on the reports of the Ministry of National Education (MONE) of Türkiye, more than one million refugees in Türkiye are of school age. Children are one of the most affected groups from the refugee flow. The literature indicated that lack of communication and language skills, limited support by parents, and economic and cultural differences were educational challenges that typically developing Syrian refugee children in Türkiye have been experiencing. However, very few studies have explored the educational issues that Syrian refugee children with disabilities have been experiencing. This study was conducted to contribute to the literature by exploring the educational challenges that Syrian refugee children with disabilities have been experiencing. Structured and semistructured interviews were conducted with eight parents of refugee children with disabilities and eight teachers of the students. Findings of the present study indicated that most of the educational issues that children with disabilities have been experiencing were the same as those experienced by typically developing Syrian refugee children. These common issues included language and communication barriers, cultural differences, and economic issues. The present study added that limited cooperation between parents and teachers, lack of educational materials designed for bilingual children with disabilities, and lack of expectations of parents from their children with disabilities were the issues that Syrian refugee children with disabilities have been experiencing. This study provides implications for practice and suggestions for future research.

Purpose: To investigate the language environments experienced by preterm-born infants, this study compared the linguistic and interactive features of parent--infant conversations involving 2-year-old preterm- and term-born infants. The study also explored how mother-infant and father-infant conversations may be differentially affected by preterm/term birth status. Method: Twenty-two preterm-born (< 37 weeks' gestation) and 25 term-born ([greater than or equal to] 37 weeks' gestation) 2-year-old infants engaged in dyadic mother/father-infant free-play interactions that were transcribed to quantify the linguistic (parental volubility, speech rate, lexical diversity, and morphosyntactic complexity) and interactive (infant/parent responsiveness, turn-taking, and conversational balance) features of parent-infant conversations. Language, cognitive, socioemotional, and executive function skills were assessed via standardized tools. Results: Compared to the term group, the preterm group was characterized by lower maternal speech rate, parental lexical diversity, and parent-infant turntaking, as well as greater mother--infant conversational balance. The preterm group presented poorer language and executive function skills when compared to the term group. Conclusions: Both similarities and differences exist between the language environments of preterm and term groups. Similarities may be due to the partial developmental catch-up of preterm-born infants (cognitive and socioemotional skills) and parental scaffolding. Differences may partly reflect a parental adaptation to the language and executive function difficulties of preterm-born infants. These findings suggest that researchers/clinicians should appraise the language environment with respect to the unique developmental needs of preterm/term-born infants. Future research directions are provided to advance a more holistic characterization of the language environment and a deeper understanding of the developmental significance of preterm-term differences in such environments.

The first and most important step of teaching Turkish to foreigners is to enable individuals to acquire four basic language skills. Writing, which is generally considered to be the last of these skills, is seen as the most difficult skill to be acquired by students. Writing autonomy is an ability that can increase individuals' attitudes and motivation towards writing, improve students' writing skill and contribute to the accomplishment of effective and permanent learning. The purpose of the current study is to investigate the relationship between the writing autonomy and writing skill of students learning Turkish as a foreign language. The study group of the current study is comprised of 129 B1 and B2 level students attending the Turkish Teaching Centres in Mugla Sitki Koçman University, Usak University and Bursa Uludag University in the 2020/2021 academic year. In the study, the relational survey model, one of the quantitative research methods, was employed. The data of the study were collected with the compositions written by the students, a "Personal Information Form", a "Written Expression Rubric" and the "Writing Autonomy Scale". At the end of the measBurement process, the data were analyzed by using Chi-Square Test, frequency and percentage values, Mann-Whitney U Test, Kruskal-Wallis H Test and Spearman's Rho. As a result of the study, it was found that the writing skill of the students with high levels of writing autonomy was also high, and it was determined that there was a positive, low and significant correlation between the writing autonomy and the writing skillof students learning Turkish as a foreign language.

Considering it is important to what level foreign children who are included in the education system have some different skills in the educational environment, it is aimed to examine the opinions of teachers about the language, school adaptation and social skills of foreign children. In the research, qualitative research method depending on the situation pattern was used and the opinions of 20 classroom teachers on various skills of foreign children were taken. Interviews were conducted through a semi-structured interview form, and direct quotations were included in the study. Expert opinions on the relevant measurement tool were received and five questions were asked within the scope of the research. 20 classroom teachers working in primary schools in Antalya province were determined according to the criterion sampling method. Content analysis method was used in the analysis of the data. Content analysis; coding of the data, finding the themes, arranging the codes and themes, defining and interpreting the findings took place in four stages. According to the results of the research, most of the teachers stated that they saw themselves as inadequate in developing the social skills of foreign students. For this reason, it is recommended that all teachers be given in-service training on improving the social skills of foreign students. Teachers stated that they felt alone in the process of developing social skills of foreign students and that they did not know enough what to do. For this reason, it has been found important to provide the support of various institutions, organizations and individuals to teachers in this process. Teachers stated that the most important factor that negatively affects foreign students' language, school adaptation and social skills is not knowing Turkish. For this reason, it has been stated that in order to improve the social skills of foreign students, it is necessary to teach Turkish to all foreign students first, and then move on to other skills training.

Studying abroad in general is beneficial academically, socially, and linguistically for students. This qualitative study is using narrative inquiry to uncover personal experiences of three Indonesian undergraduate students as they sail to study abroad through IISMA to the University of Padua, Italy in 2021. The experiences and meaning the students develop are discussed through interviews and personal notes. The data is categorized based on the research questions about what and how the experiences of study abroad influence cross-cultural understanding and English skills development. Before departing, aiming to study abroad and the preparation is the most critical. Meanwhile, during the program, cultural and academic obstacles is inevitable. Upon returning to Indonesia, students developed a stronger sense of self-confidence to pursue another degree and career advancement. This study concludes that individual narratives is an important tool to empower learning process for students studying abroad.

This study investigated the effectiveness of using a social learning programme facilitated by Facebook to develop some creative writing skills and motivation to learn English among secondary-one school students. Seventy students in secondary-one grade in Al-Shahid Hussein A. Abdul-Raouf Mixed Secondary School in Al-Maabda in the second semester of the academic 2022\2023 year, Assiut Educational Directorate where the researcher works, were chosen as the study participants and were divided evenly into two groups. The researcher adopted the two-group quasi-experimental design. A creative writing pre-post test was administered to the participants of both study groups to assess students' development in the specified creative writing skills before and after the experimental treatment. A motivation scale was administered to the participants of the experimental group before the experimental treatment, and it was readministered to the participants of both the study groups after the experimental treatment to assess the effectiveness of the program in enhancing the students' motivation to learn English. The data collection process included both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The results were analysed, and the outcomes were demonstrated. The findings of the study assured that there were statistically significant differences at the (0.05) level between the mean scores of the two research groups in the pre-post administration of the creative writing skills test and the motivation scale in favour of the post-testing. The study revealed that using activities based on Social Learning Theory (SLT) that were facilitated by Facebook proved to be effective and have considerable contributions to developing English creative writing skills of secondary-one school students. Future research should focus on integrating Social Learning Theory and the virtual educational environment of Facebook in the English language content and curriculum. Research should also be conducted to investigate the use of Social Learning and Facebook in other language skills (i.e., listening, reading, and speaking).

The abrupt transition from face-to-face (F2F) to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic impacted students' learning experiences in many ways. This survey-based study investigated the perceptions of 117 university students enrolled in beginner, intermediate, and advanced foreign language courses (French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish) of their learning experiences in the F2F mode relative to the online mode. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through a questionnaire with Likert-scale and open-ended questions that related to four language skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing), student engagement (participation, comfort asking questions, and peer interactions), and overall learning experience. The results revealed significant differences in participants' perceptions across all dimensions and may be used to inform future foreign language curriculum development and teaching in any instructional mode.

Diagnostic classification models (DCMs) have recently become very popular both for research purposes and for real testing endeavors for student assessment. A plethora of DCM models give researchers and practitioners a wide range of options for student diagnosis and classification. One intriguing option that some DCM models offer is the possibility of examining the nature of the interactions among the attributes underlying a skill. Attributes in second/foreign language (L2) may interact with each other in a compensatory/non-compensatory manner. Subskill/attribute relationship has been studied using diagnostic classification models. The present study provides a mini review of the DCM studies on the attribute relationships in L2 reading, listening, and writing. The criteria based on which interaction between the attributes have been inferred are reviewed. The results showed that the majority of DCM studies have investigated reading comprehension and more studies are required on the productive skills of writing and speaking. Furthermore, suggestions for future studies are provided.

Research Findings: This study aims to extend our knowledge regarding contributions of educator--child interactions to child language outcomes by examining the extent to which specific dimensions of the CLASS observational tool of educator-child interactions are associated with child language abilities, utilizing data from an Australian longitudinal study of over 2,000 children attending formal Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC). The analysis included a novel measurement model fitted to the data to allow each CLASS dimension to be modeled separately. Results showed that each CLASS dimension was associated with initial average language abilities. Small, negative effects of Emotional Support dimensions on growth of children's average Understanding Directions score were found, but there were no associations between any of the dimensions and average growth in Verbal Ability. None of the Instructional Support dimensions (which are language focused) predicted growth in language abilities. These null findings are addressed in the discussion. Practice or Policy: Findings from this study illustrate that, typically, ECEC programs rate low on dimensions of quality developed to capture language-promoting educator-child interactions. Findings also suggest a selection effect related to equity of access to classroom quality with children with the highest initial language abilities in the highest quality classrooms.

The present study investigates whether exposure to multilingual pedagogies enhances emergent bilingual children's narrative abilities. These abilities are among the most reliable indicators of children's literacy skills. We compare two groups of emergent bilingual children with migrant background attending the fourth and fifth grade of a public primary school in Italy: 30 children were exposed to multilingual pedagogies, whereas 33 attended a 'traditional' monoglossic program. The results show that children exposed to multilingual pedagogies use more mental state terms in their narratives in both their home language and Italian than children exposed to monoglossic education. Furthermore children exposed to multilingual pedagogies exhibit similar patterns of use of mental state terms across the two languages. By contrast, the production of mental state terms differs across the two languages among the children exposed to monoglossic education. The qualitative analysis of the narratives shows that the home and the school language dynamically interact with each other regarding the construction of the narrative among the children exposed to multilingual pedagogies. The children attending monoglossic programs rely mostly on literal translations. The study shows that multilingual pedagogies boost emergent bilinguals' literacy skills and enable them to access these skills from all languages in their repertoire.

The mathematical abilities of children with autism spectrum condition have been understudied. Magnitude representation is a fundamental numerical ability that emerges early in development and is linked to children's learning of formal mathematics. It remains unclear about whether children with autism spectrum condition differ from their peers without autism spectrum condition in the precision of magnitude representations. This study recruited preschool-aged children with autism spectrum condition (N = 70; 64 boys, M[subscript age] = 5.20 years) and without autism spectrum condition (N = 117; 63 boys, M[subscript age] = 5.11 years), and tested their precision of magnitude representation with an approximate number comparison task (dot comparison). Children with autism spectrum condition exhibited the lower numerical comparison accuracy (i.e. the weaker magnitude representation) than their peers without autism spectrum condition, regardless of the congruency between numerosity and surface area of dots. Moreover, the lower numerical comparison accuracy was observed even controlling for multiple general cognitive abilities (working memory, inhibitory control, and nonverbal intelligence) and language abilities. In addition, the variability of the comparison accuracy was larger in children with autism spectrum condition than without autism spectrum condition. These findings suggest that children with autism spectrum condition are at risk of weaker magnitude representation from an early age, emphasizing the need for specialized mathematics education or interventions to support their learning.

Prior research supports the need for elementary-aged students with reading difficulties (RDs) to receive explicit systematic small-group evidence-based reading instruction. Yet for many students, simply receiving evidence-based reading instruction in a small-group setting is insufficient to reach the progress milestones needed to meet grade-level reading standards. The current study examined whether (a) elementary school students with RD constitute homogeneous or heterogeneous groups when considering their basic language and cognitive skills (using a latent profile analysis) and (b) latent profiles are predictive of response to reading comprehension instruction (using a mixed modeling approach). The sample consisted of 335 students, including students with RD and typical students (n = 57). The results revealed heterogeneity within students with RD--there were two distinct profiles, with one having higher basic language (reading fluency and decoding) and cognitive (verbal domain productivity, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) skills and lower attention skills and the other having stronger attention skills and lower basic language and cognitive skills. The findings also suggested that latent profiles were predictive of response to reading comprehension instruction. Our results provide a convincing argument for leading the field in the direction of developing customized interventions. It is conceivable, but remains to be further examined, that researchers and educators could potentially improve reading outcomes through providing a customized reading intervention to a student based on their cognitive-language profile.

Fraction arithmetic facility is fundamental to learning more advanced math topics. However, attaining the ability to add and subtract fractions is hard for many students. The present longitudinal study examined students' growth on simple addition and subtraction word problems between fourth and sixth grades (N = 536). Latent class growth analyses revealed three empirically distinct growth trajectories: (a) "consistently accurate" students who displayed high accuracy across time; (b) "high-growth" students who demonstrated low initial accuracy but made subsequent growth; and (c) "low-growth" students who demonstrated consistently poor accuracy across time. Age and whole number calculation fluency predicted membership in the consistently accurate and high-growth classes relative to membership in the low-growth class. Language and nonverbal reasoning skills were identified as predictors of student membership in the consistently accurate versus low-growth class. Low-growth students displayed more whole number bias and calculation errors compared with students who demonstrated growth. Findings reveal that a concerning subset of students make little to no progress in simple fraction arithmetic computation, despite several years of fractions instruction in school.

An area of ongoing debate among bilingual scholars and practitioners is the extent to which instructional languages should be separated in dual language bilingual education (DLBE). This article contributes to and extends this effort by proposing critical translanguaging space as a conceptual lens to guide the design of translanguaging pedagogies in DLBE programs. This concept is grounded in spatial understandings of languaging and learning and comprised of three interrelated dimensions: (1) dynamic languaging, (2) heteroglossic ideologies, and (3) critical consciousness. After outlining these central tenets, I concretize this approach through a case study of a researcher-practitioner collaboration aimed at fostering a dynamic languaging space in a DLBE classroom that had previously enforced strict language separation. Findings reveal the ways in which this project reflected the aims of a critical translanguaging space, including by affirming students' dynamic bilingual repertoires and identities, reframing linguistic expertise, fostering practice-based understandings of bilingualism, and creating opportunities for interrogating issues of equity. At the same time, the project fell short of cultivating students' critical consciousness, as critical inquiry was largely relegated to students' small group conversations. I conclude with a discussion of findings and implications for future efforts at fostering critical and flexible bilingual learning spaces.

This study examined the spoken language, written language, and executive functions of 19 female adolescents with high risk factors in a long-term, holistic program. Standardized assessment results revealed that 63.2% of the participants had below-average spoken language, 68.5% had below-average written language, and 68.4% and 42.1% had some level of elevated executive functioning challenges (as reported by themselves and by the program staff, respectively). However, these profiles did not match their current disabilities: none had a speech/language impairment, 26.3% had a learning disability, and 78.9% had emotional/behavioral disorder. Additionally, there were stark differences in the number of disabilities and assessment scores between participants involved with the juvenile justice system and those who were not. Participants involved with the justice system had the greatest challenges in all areas. This and other findings from the study are described and discussed.

Language and drawing each have their own sets of symbols that they use to convey messages. It is still unclear whether the development of these two expression mechanisms is similar or distinct. There are various approaches to supporting language and communication skills, including structured and naturalistic methods. The goal of this in-depth case study is to find out how a combined intervention affects the language and drawing abilities of a three-year-old girl with developmental delay. Structured implementations and milieu teaching strategies were used in the same session, but not simultaneously. The participant's language and communication skills improved at the end of the programme. Interestingly, even though there was no drawing-related goal, her drawings evolved too. Even though this is a single-subject case study, it suggests that if a child's cognitive and language skills develop, his/her drawing skills do as well.

This study examines Chinese immigrant parents' educational involvement beliefs and practices during their children's transition to kindergarten in the United States. Interviews were conducted with 10 Chinese immigrant parents in an area with a small Chinese population and limited ethnic resources. Three main themes emerged. First, limited English proficiency and inadequate knowledge of the American educational system are barriers to parental involvement. Specifically, although parents acknowledged the importance of family-school partnerships, they were not confident interacting with teachers or local parents. Parents expressed concerns that their limited English skills would adversely impact their children's academic and mental development. Additionally, parents explained reasons for having high educational expectations for their children, given the unequal educational opportunities for immigrant students. Second, Chinese immigrant parents endeavored to understand the American educational system, and they adjusted their beliefs and practices by comparing American and Chinese schools and volunteering in the school. Third, Chinese immigrant parents navigated ethnic resources by building a collaborative ethnic community and creating parent support groups on social media. This study highlights that although immigrant background restricted Chinese immigrant parents' educational involvement, they were keenly aware of the importance of parental involvement in supporting their children's kindergarten transition and actively adjusted their educational involvement beliefs and practices.

The practices of sorting things out and bringing things together, which I summarise under the term relanguaging, sit between fluid, situated languaging practices and the administrative standard grid in education that relies on bounded, named languages. Relanguaging, I argue, was invisible to socio- and applied linguists' analytical vision because of a tendency to set named languages as the norm. This led to questions about switching between or transcending languages but not about producing and dissolving them. Together with two English teachers in Khayelitsha, South Africa, I instead set fluid languaging practices as the analytical norm to then investigate the relationship between such fluidity and (administratively) fixed languages. The language classrooms I focus on then emerge as one of the production sites of named languages - here of English. English teachers (sometimes in collaboration with their students) sort out extremely complex spatial repertoires with various heterogeneous linguistic resources to produce English as a recognisable, teachable and learnable entity. The reflections I present suggest a different idea of how language classrooms work (also in settings beyond Khayelitsha) but they also open up (language) philosophical questions about the ontology of linguistic features and how they come to be English (or not).

A sample of 144 s- and 150 fourth-grade Chinese children was recruited to investigate the influence of body-object interactions (BOIs) on word recognition, i.e., how easily they could interact physically with each word's referent. The moderation on this relationship of children's screen time for entertainment purposes (i.e., the viewing or use of any device with a screen) was also examined. In a lexical decision task, the children were asked to judge whether each item was a real Chinese word. Each real word was assigned a BOI rating score. Model analysis showed that the BOI rating was a significant predictor of the children's word recognition performances. The children recognized the words with higher BOI ratings at higher accuracy rates and higher response speeds more than the words with lower BOI ratings, showing a BOI effect. These results suggest an involvement of sensorimotor information in processing concepts. As well, the results showed a moderating effect of screen time on the BOI effect. With the increase of screen time, the BOI effect was reduced in terms of response speed. Moreover, the influence of the screen time on the BOI effect was larger in the second graders than in the fourth graders.

Gamification is an increasingly popular approach to engage learners in educational contexts. Although many studies have examined the effects of gamification in comparison to a non-gamification approach, less attention has been paid to the impact of different ways of implementing gamification on students' learning and engagement. In this study, we performed a quasi-experiment on the competitive, cooperative, and collaborative types of gamification among secondary school students who learn English as a foreign language. The quantitative results indicate students in the competitive condition significantly outperformed their peers in the cooperative condition on a reading-related skill (morphological awareness), word reading, and reading comprehension. They also had higher gains in morphological awareness than students in the collaborative condition, although these two groups showed similar improvement in far-transfer measures (i.e., word reading and reading comprehension). Concerning engagement, qualitative data collected from interviews suggested gamification contributed to students' behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement. The qualitative data also reflected the possible reasons for the quantitative results. We conclude that cooperative and collaborative gamification should be designed carefully and take various factors into account (e.g., establishing shared goals and rewards, emphasising individual and collective contributions, and collaboration training) to ensure that the gamification approach does not hinder student learning.

Purpose: This study focuses on 7- to 9-year-old children attending primary school in Swedish areas of low socioeconomic status, where most children's school language is their second language. The aim was to better understand what factors influence these children's narrative listening comprehension both in an ideal listening condition (in quiet) and for the primary school classroom, a typical listening condition (with multitalker babble noise). Method: A total of 86 typically developing 7- to 9-year-olds performed a narrative listening comprehension test (Lyssna, Förstå och Minnas [LFM]; English translation: Listen, Comprehend, and Remember) in two listening conditions: quiet and multitalker babble noise. They also performed the crosslinguistic nonword repetition test and a digit span backwards (DSB) test. A predictive statistical model including these factors, the children's degree of school language exposure, parental education level, and age was derived. Results: Listening condition had the strongest predictive value for LFM performance, followed by school language exposure and nonword repetition accuracy. Parental education level was also a significant predictor. There was a significant three-way interaction effect between listening condition, age, and DSB performance. Conclusions: Multitalker babble noise has a negative effect on children's narrative listening comprehension. The effect of multitalker babble noise could be explained by age differences in the ability to allocate working memory capacity during the narrative listening comprehension task, suggesting that younger children may be more vulnerable for missing information when listening in background noise than their older peers.

Background: Narrative discourse, or storytelling, is used in daily conversation and requires higher-level language and social communication skills that are not always captured by standardised assessments of language. Many autistic individuals and individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) have difficulties with both social communication and language skills, and narrative discourse analysis offers an ecologically relevant approach to assessing those challenges. Aims: This study investigated narrative discourse in individuals with autism and FASD, as well as an age- and sex-matched comparison group. Methods and Procedures: Narratives from 45 adolescents and adults, 11 with autism, 11 with FASD and 23 age- and sex-matched comparison participants were elicited using a wordless storybook. They were then transcribed orthographically, formatted to the Systematic Analyses of Language Transcript (SALT) convention and scored based on the SALT Narrative Scoring Scheme (NSS), a standardised language analysis protocol. In addition to the NSS total score, which assesses the overall structure and cohesion of the narratives produced, local and global measures of language ability were also employed. The local language measures included the number of mental state and temporal relation terms produced, while the global language measures included mean length of utterance, total different words, total words, total utterances, rate of speech, the number of mazes (e.g., repetitions, 'um', 'uh' or self-corrections) per total word and the NSS total score. Outcomes and Results: Using the SALT "Language Sample Analysis" tool, our results revealed that on global language measures, group differences were found on rate of speech, number of mazes per total words and the description of conflict/resolution in the narratives produced. The autism group produced significantly more mazes per total word and scored higher on the NSS conflict/resolution category score compared to the FASD and comparison groups. Both the autism and FASD groups spoke at a lower rate than the comparison group. On local language measures of narrative production, all groups were comparable, on average. Conclusions and Implications: While many aspects of narrative discourse in the autism and FASD groups were similar to each other and to the comparison group, we observed group differences on global measures of narrative production and significant individual variability within groups, suggesting that narrative abilities considered at an individual level may provide important clinical information for intervention planning. Future research should also consider additional variables that influence narrative discourse, such as motivation, distractibility or decision-making of individual participants.

In Germany, Turkish-origin students face negative competence-related stereotypes held by different groups in society, including teachers at school. While a large body of research has examined stereotypes (i.e., "other-stereotypes") about immigrant students, little is known about their own competence-related "meta-stereotypes," i.e., beliefs regarding the other-stereotypes that outgroup peers hold about them. The present study addresses this research gap by examining Turkish- and German-origin students' meta-stereotypes about two dimensions of competencies not yet investigated, namely Turkish- and German-origin students' subject-related German competence as well as their general school competence using a newly developed instrument combining verbal and non-verbal measures. These assessments are juxtaposed to the evaluations of a group of peers with other immigrant backgrounds (i.e., "others' meta-stereotypes"). In line with previous evidence, we found "positive" meta-stereotypes (as well as other- and others' meta-stereotypes) towards German-origin students reported by all three groups. However, our study is the first that supports the existence of "negative" meta-stereotypes (as well as other- and others' meta-stereotypes) towards Turkish-origin adolescents, again, among all participants. This pattern was particularly pronounced regarding the dimension of subject-related German competence. We discuss the findings' potential relevance for students' self-concepts and intergroup interactions in classrooms.

Research suggests foster children are at risk for poor language skills. One intervention, attachment and biobehavioral catch-up (ABC), was shown to successfully improve not only young foster children's attachment to their parents, but also their receptive vocabulary skills (Bernard et al., 2017; Raby et al., 2019). Given that language acquisition is intricately linked to parents' sensitive interactions with their children, we ask whether the ABC intervention also improves the quality of parents' talk addressed to children. We test whether the ABC intervention results in more conversational turns between parents and their children. Crucially, we also look within these conversational turns, assessing the number and types of questions that parents ask children. Results suggest that parents who received the ABC intervention do not have more conversational turns or ask higher numbers of questions, compared to parents who received the control intervention. Rather, parents in the ABC group ask a higher proportion of child-led and restatement questions, and a lower proportion of parent-led and pedagogical questions, compared to the control. Additionally, the higher proportion of child-led questions were related to higher parental sensitivity scores. Together, these results suggest that an intervention originally designed to improve children's socioemotional outcomes had positive benefits for the quality of conversations between parents and children.

Mid-adolescence has been identified as a period of considerable potential growth in the language skills and practices that support reading and writing at school, but little research has examined mid-adolescents' use of connectives in school-relevant persuasive writing. In this study, we define connectives as cohesive devices that signal to a reader logical relations between ideas or organizational relations in a text. Drawing from Halliday and Matthiesen (Halliday's introduction to functional grammar, Routledge, 2014) and Hyland (Metadiscourse: exploring interaction in writing, Continuum, 2005), we propose a comprehensive taxonomy of connectives that guided our examination of developmental trends and individual differences in the use of connectives in persuasive essays written by a socioeconomically and ethnically diverse cross-sectional sample of U.S. public-school mid-adolescents in grades 5 to 8 (N = 512). Our analysis revealed (1) developmental trends and individual differences at different grade levels and (2) identified students' connective use as a predictor of overall writing quality above and beyond students' receptive language skills and sociodemographic factors.